Biology of the Cell
Instructions for Authors
Contents
1. General
1.1 ScopeBiology of the Cell (BoC) publishes papers in English on all aspects of Cellular and Molecular Biology and Cell Physiology. Of particular interest are contributions directed towards understanding structure-function relationships with respect to basic cell and tissue functions, development, neurobiology, immunology, microbiology and protistology, and plant biology. Theoretical and biophysical models on any aspect of cell function can be submitted. Descriptions of methods will be considered but their validity should be demonstrated by one or more applications.
To justify publication in BoC, manuscripts must make a significant contribution to our understanding of the mechanistic relationships that govern cellular functions. Descriptive work will only be published if it establishes a new experimental model or if the data provide a structural basis for the interpretation of functional data.
1.2 Ethics
(a) Animal and human studies
All animal studies and experimental work using human tissues should be performed in accordance with the legal requirements of the relevant local or national authority and a statement to this effect must be included in the Materials and Methods section.
The Editorial Board will not accept papers where ethical aspects of any nature are, in the Board's opinion, open to doubt.
(b) Scientific publication
BoC is a member of COPE (Committee on Publication Ethics) and endorsed its guidelines, which are available at http://www/publicationethics.org.uk. Complaints against the Journal must be submitted in writing to the Editor-in-Chief; if a complaint is not resolved to the satisfaction of the complainant they have the option of referring the matter to COPE.
Notwithstanding, the Editorial Board will not accept papers where the ethical aspects are, in the Board's opinion, open to doubt.
BoC will always investigate fully any matters of apparent misconduct that it becomes aware of.
1.3 Originality of papers
When submitting a manuscript to BoC it is understood that the data have been neither published nor also submitted for publication elsewhere in any language (excluding abstracts for conferences of less than one page and without illustrations). Any manuscript, submitted or in press, that is related to the manuscript submitted to BoC should be included with the submitted material. Such material will be made available with the manuscript to the reviewers.
1.4 Financial interests
All authors are asked to disclose any financial interests and sources of research funding that could be considered to affect the integrity of the scientific work presented. If appropriate, a general statement should be included in the Acknowledgements section of the manuscript. All funding sources, institutional and corporate, should be credited in the Acknowledgements section.
1.5 Authorship
BoC endorses the Vancouver Guidelines on authorship as defined in the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors' (ICMJE) Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals, namely that entitlement to authorship should be based on all of the following criteria: (1) substantial contributions to conception and design, or acquisition of data, or analysis and interpretation of data; (2) drafting the article or revising it for important intellectual content;(3) final approval of the version to be published. Acquisition of funding, collection of data, or general supervision of the research group, alone, does not justify authorship. All contributors who do not meet the criteria for authorship should be listed in the Acknowledgements.
1.6 Plagiarism
BoC will not tolerate plagiarism in submitted manuscripts. Passages quoted or closely paraphrased from other authors (or from the submitting authors' own published work) must be identified as quotations or paraphrases, and the sources of the quoted or paraphrased material must be acknowledged. Use of unacknowledged sources will be construed as plagiarism. If any manuscript is found to contain plagiarized material the review process will be halted immediately.
1.7 Page and colour figure charges
There are no page charges for publication in BoC. Colour figures required to adequately present the data will be reproduced free of charge. However, the production of an excessive and unjustified number of colour illustrations will be charged to the authors.
1.8 Cover images
Authors of accepted manuscripts are encouraged to submit outstanding photographs or graphical drawings that may be used as the cover image for the issue of BoC in which their manuscripts will be published.
1.9 Data acquired using small interfering RNAs (siRNAs)
In the context of these recommendations, the term small interfering RNAs includes all small RNA (or modified nucleic acid) molecules that form a duplex with a target RNA and thereby modify the processing, stability of the translation of the target RNA.
Small interfering RNAs are becoming a much-used tool in cell biology to modify gene expression. However, the use of these molecules are not prone to artifacts.To help ensure that the effects of interfering RNAs reported in manuscripts are specific changes in the expected gene products, and not the consequences of the small interfering RNA affecting 'off-target' RNAs, the following experi-mental verifications are recommended in addition to the usual computer-based analyses:
- - More than one interfering RNA should be used for the same target RNA
- - Depending on the interfering RNA used, the change, or lack of change, in the amount of targeted RNA or protein should be quantified by an appropriate method
- - When appropriate, experiments to repress the cellular changes caused by the interfering RNA should be done; for example, by restoring the level of the target RNA protein product by using a modified mRNA that is no longer recognized by the intefering RNA.
- - Depending on the interfering RNA used, the change, or lack of change, in the amount of targeted RNA or protein should be quantified by an appropriate method
Further controls may be requested by the reviewers, depending on the advances in the field.
2. Manuscript types and organization
2.1 Types of manuscriptsResearch Articles: These should be fully documented reports of original research. The length of a manuscript must be justified by the data presented. Manuscripts should be divided into sections as described under Manuscript organization and length below.
Reviews: Both solicited and unsolicited reviews will be considered for publication in BoC. Authors wishing to submit a review are invited to contact the Associate Editors for Reviews directly or though the Editor-in-Chief's office (see section 5, Addresses for correspondence).
Scientiae Forum: Manuscripts submitted to this section must enter into one of the following categories. 'Models and Speculations' on all aspects of cell structure and function. 'Primer Reviews' that introduce specific aspects of cell biology to scientists working in unrelated fields of interest. 'History of Biology and the Cell' that places current research activities within their historical context. 'My Favourite Sites' that describe outstanding features of websites useful to the life scientist.
Authors requesting information on whether a manuscript is appropriate for the Scientiae Forum should contact one of the Associate Editors in charge of the particular subsection (see section 5, Addresses for correspondence).
Meeting Reports: Informative reports of meetings are also published if the subject is considered to be of interest to BoC readers. Enquiries should be sent to the Editor-in-Chief (see section 5, Addresses for correspondence).
2.2 Manuscript organization and length
In order to aid the reader to quickly extract a maximum of information from publications in BoC, there are specific facets to the organization of Research articles, Reviews and Scientiae Forum contributions. Please make sure that you consult the specific instructions for the type of manuscript you are submitting.
The length of manuscripts must be justified by the scientific content; it is expected that Research Articles report definitive results that make a significant contribution to our knowledge. As guidelines, it is suggested that manuscripts in the different categories published in BoC do not exceed the following limits: 10 printed pages for Research Articles and 12 printed pages for Reviews. For contributions to the Scientiae Forum the suggested limits are 8 printed pages for Primer Reviews; 6 printed pages for Models and Speculations, and History of Biology and the Cell; and 4 printed pages for My Favourite Sites (although up to 6 pages would be acceptable for descriptions of mutiple sites). The numbers of printed pages given above includes the title page, figures, legends and references.
A full page of text in BoC contains approx. 800 words. When calculating the printed length of papers as described above, allowance must be made for the space taken up by figures, tables and schemes, and this is best assessed by inspection of a recent issue of BoC. For example, 10 printed pages would correspond to about 6400 words and 4 half-page figures. Authors should be aware that certain material (sequence data and protocols not necessary to understand the experiments but which would be of added value) can be published as supplementary online data (see section 2.8, Supplementary material). In addition, panels in composite figures should be judiciously arranged to make the most efficient use of page space.
2.3 All manuscripts
Title Page: Give the title of the manuscript, the names, affiliations and addresses of all the authors, indicate the corresponding author (only one) and give their telephone number, fax number and email address. Provide a running title of less than 50 characters including spaces. List up to five key words.
Abbreviations: Only use abbreviations for terms that are used at least three times and define them when first used in the text. A list of abbreviations used should also be supplied at the end of the text. Abbreviations given in the BoC standard abbreviations list can be used without definition (see section 6).
Acknowledgements: All funding sources, institutional and corporate, should be credited. A general statement should be included if financial interests or research funding could be perceived to compromise the integrity of the published work.
Abstract: On acceptance authors will be offered the opportunity to provide a version of their abstract in a language other than English, for publication alongside the English version.
2.4 Research Articles
Abstract: The abstract should be divided into three sections: Background Information, Results and Conclusions. The total length should not exceed 350 words. Abbreviations should not be used and references, if absolutely required, should be given in full.
Introduction: Summarize prior knowledge on the research presented. Do not make an extensive review. Present any theoretical background required to understand the experiments. The results can be briefly stated.
Results and Discussion: These two sections can be combined if desired. All conclusions must be rigorously supported by the data. Speculative interpretations of the results should be restricted to the Discussion section.
Materials and Methods: Sufficient detail should be given to allow others to repeat the experiments. Only modifications to already published methods should be described.
2.5 Reviews and Scientiae Forum - Primer Reviews
Abstract: The abstract should be written as a single paragraph and give a self-explanatory synopsis of the publication that is directly suitable for abstracting services. It should not exceed 200 words. Abbreviations should not be used and references, if absolutely required, should be given in full.
Text: This should be divided into separate sections, with informative headings, as considered appropriate by the author. The first section should introduce the review. The authors are asked to give definitions, throughout the text, of words or terms with which all readers may not be acquainted. These will be printed on the appropriate pages within a distinctive box. The referees and/or the editorial board may suggest additional definitions. In addition, for reviews, references that are particularly important (landmark/milestone), or for Primer Reviews those that are recommended as further reading, should be indicated by an asterisk (*).
2.6 Scientiae Forum - Models and speculations, My Favourite sites and History of Biology and the CellAbstract: The abstract should be written as a single paragraph and give a self-explanatory synopsis of the publication that is directly suitable for abstracting services. It should not exceed 100 words. Abbreviations should not be used and references, if absolutely required, should be given in full.
Text: This should be divided into separate sections, with informative headings, as considered appropriate by the author. The first section should introduce the subject treated.
Animated versions of suitable figures can be produced by the Editorial Office for Reviews and Primer Reviews. Authors are requested to indicate on submission whether any figures would benefit from this treatment.
2.7 References
In all manuscripts, references should be cited within the text as follows:
One or two authors: (Jaffe, 2003); (Schenk and Matteoli, 2004)
More than two authors: (McNew et al., 2000)
If style requires, the format McNew et al. (2000) is also acceptable.
Multiple dates, same author: (Smith et al., 2001a, 2001b)
In date order: (Zhou et al., 1992; Ari et al., 2000)
In the list, references should appear in alphabetical order by first author's last name. Include all authors' names (do not use "et al."), year, complete article title, journal, volume and inclusive page numbers. Abbreviate journal names according to PubMed; spell out the names of unlisted journals. Do not list unpublished material but cite parenthetically within the text as "unpublished data". Do not use others forms such as "manuscript in preparation," "manuscript submitted," "unpublished results" or "unpublished observation". Unpublished data may not be cited in the Materials and Methods section. Unpublished data provided by a person(s) who is not an author of the article must be cited as a "personal communication". An authorization from this person(s) must be provided with the manuscript. Abstracts to meetings should not appear in the reference list but incorporated parenthetically into the text, giving the authors' names, meeting name and year, and abstract number. Adhere to the reference formats provided by the following examples:
Published article: Crane, R., Gadea, B., Littlepage, L., Wu, H. and Ruderman J.V. (2004) Aurora A, meiosis and mitosis. Biol. Cell 96, 215-229
Published article with DOI only: Lopez-Soler, R.I., Moir, R.D., Spann, T.P., Stick, R. and Goldman, R.D. (2008) A role for nuclear lamins in nuclear envelope assembly. J. Cell Biol. 10.1083/jcb.200801025
Article in press: Murakami, M.S., Moody, S.A., Daar, I.O. and Morrison, D.K. (2008) Morphogenesis during Xenopus gastrulation requires Wee1-mediated inhibition of cell proliferation. Development, in the press
Complete Book: Scheel, D. and Wasternack, C.(2002) Plant Signal Transduction, Oxford University Press, Oxford
Chapter in Book: DeMey, J. (1986) The preparation and use of gold probes. In Immunocytochemistry: Practical Applications in Pathology and Biology (Polak, J.M. and Van Noorden, S. eds.), pp. 115-145, Wright, Bristol
For reviews, publications that are particularly important (landmark/milestone) or for Primer Reviews those that are recommended as further reading should be indicated by an asterisk (*).
2.8 Figures and tables (all manuscripts)
Legends: Legends should be self-explanatory, starting with an informative title, and contain all the necessary information without reference to the text except for general experimental details. Group all legends (tables and illustrations) together at the end of the text on a new page.
Tables: Tables, numbered consecutively with Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3 etc), should have a heading and a legend.
Figures: Each figure should be numbered consecutively with Arabic numerals and must have an informative title and a legend. Do not number the separate panels of composite figure as separate figures. All figures in electronic form must be prepared and saved in TIFF or EPS format at publication quality resolution (see Manuscripts accepted for publication) before conversion to the PDF format required for the initial submission. Colour illustrations should be saved in RGB format. Black and white illustrations should be saved as half-tones (grey scale). All micrographs must include a scale bar. For lettering on line drawings only Times, Helvetica, Arial or Symbol fonts should be used; the use of different fonts may lead to loss of improperly converted characters. Authors are encouraged to check that when figures are reduced to publication size (maximum width: one column, 80mm; two columns, 170mm; maximum height 205mm) all the required details are visible. For composite figures, please ensure that the individual panels are arranged so as to give the most efficient use of the available space for the figure while ensuring that all the required details are visible.
Image acquisition and manipulation: Biology of the Cell endorses the guidelines given in the Instructions for Authors of the Journal of Cell Biology, from where the following is adapted by kind permission of Rockefeller University Press:
The following information must be provided about the acquisition and processing of images:
- Make and model of microscope
- Type, magnification, and numerical aperture of the objective lenses
- Temperature
- Imaging medium
- Fluorochromes
- Camera make and model
- Acquisition software
- Any subsequent software used for image processing, with details about types of operations involved (e.g. type of deconvolution, 3D reconstructions, surface or volume rendering, gamma adjustments, etc.).
No specific feature within an image may be enhanced, obscured, moved, removed or introduced. The grouping of images from different parts of the same gel, or from different gels, fields or exposures must be made explicit by the arrangement of the figure (i.e. using dividing lines) and in the text of the figure legend. Adjustments of brightness, contrast or colour balance are acceptable if they are applied to the whole image and as long as they do not obscure, eliminate or misrepresent any information present in the original, including backgrounds.The background of figures should be clearly distinct from the surrounding page. Non-linear adjustments (e.g. changes to gamma settings) must be disclosed in the figure legend.
Authors are encouraged to read the papers by M. Rossner and K. M. Yamada (2004) J. Cell Biol. 166, 11-15 and A. J. North (2006) J.Cell Biol. 172, 9-18
Supplementary material (data, protocols and videos): Voluminous sequence data and alignment diagrams are better presented as supplementary data. This is considered by BoC as published data and therefore should not be considered as a depositary for "unpublished data". Details of methods that are not necessary to understand the experiments but which would be of value to colleagues can also be included as additional data. BoC will also post video files with the online version of the publication. These should be cited at the relevant place(s) in the Results section and also in the legend to any illustration that contains images taken from these videos. An "Online Supplementary Material" section that provides a brief description of additional data, experimental protocols and videos should be included at the end of the Results section. All illustrations and videos presented as supplementary data must be accompanied by title and a self-explanatory legend.
3. Online submission
Papers should be submitted online at www.biolcell.org/submit/, where full instructions are available.
Submission of a paper to BoC implies that it has been approved by all the named authors, that all persons entitled to authorship have been so named, that it reports unpublished work that is not under consideration for publication elsewhere in any language, that conflicts of interest are declared and that if the paper is accepted for publication the authors will grant to Portland Press Ltd an exclusive licence to publish the paper (see section 4.4, Copyright policy).
Submission checklist:
• Covering letter including the names, addresses and email addresses of four possible referees (two of whom should be from the editorial board; see the list on the Journal web page: http://www.biolcell.org).
• Master electronic copy of typescript, as a one-line-spaced PDF (or separate files of text and illustrations):
- complete text in appropriate style, pages numbered
- full names and addresses of authors
- full name, address, telephone and fax numbers and email address of corresponding author (all correspondence and proofs will be sent to this author)
- figures
• Related papers in press or under editorial consideration
• Evidence of approval of personal communications
• Evidence of submission of nucleic acid or protein sequences to an appropriate data bank.
4. Manuscripts accepted for publication
On acceptance, authors will be requested to supply, via an ftp site, the text and figures of the final version.
4.1 Text
Text files should be formatted double-spaced with no hyphenation and automatic wordwrap (no hard returns within paragraphs). Please type your text consistently, e.g. take care to distinguish between '1' (one) and 'l' (lower case L), and '0' (zero) and 'O' (capital O), etc. Do not use endnote/footnote formats. Text revisions must not be marked in the electronic copy. Every effort will be made to use the Word file during typesetting, but this cannot be guaranteed. Authors must ensure that the file has been updated to incorporate all revisions, and hence that the file matches the final version of the manuscript seen by the reviewers. Our preferred word-processing format is Word for Windows version 6.
4.2 Tables
Tables should be typed as text. The use of graphics programs and 'table editors' should be avoided.
4.3 FiguresNo artwork should be incorporated into the text files. Artwork should be in either TIFF or EPS format according to the specifications below and each figure saved as a separate file:
(a) black and white figures (e.g. line diagrams, bar graphs etc) as .tiff files at 600 dots per inch (dpi) or .eps files at 1200 dpi only.
(b) figures containing grey scale (including gel images) as .tiff files only. These files should be at least 300 dpi.
(c) figures containing colour as .tiff (or .eps) files only. We can only accept files that are prepared in RGB (CMYK should not be used). These files should be at least 300 dpi.
4.4 Copyright policy
Biology of the Cell is published by Portland Press Ltd on behalf of the Société de Biologie Cellulaire de France and the Société Française des Microscopies, the owners of the journal. In order to allow your article to be distributed as widely as possible in the Journal we ask that you grant Portland Press Ltd an exclusive licence to publish your article on behalf of the Société Française des Microscopies and the Société de Biologie Cellulaire de France if it is accepted for publication. There are also a number of other reasons for this: (i) you authorize Portland Press to act to defend your copyright, although we are under no obligation to act in this way; (ii) it will enable us to deal efficiently with requests from third parties to reproduce or reprint the article, or part of it.
Ownership of copyright remains with you as the author (or with your employer if they own the copyright in the work) and you retain non-exclusive rights to do the following (provided the Journal is acknowledged in standard bibliographic citation form):
• use your article as long as it is not sold or given away in ways which would conflict directly with the commercial business interests of Portland Press Ltd
• reproduce your article in whole or in part in any printed work of which you are the author
• post an electronic version (Word or PDF) of the final accepted manuscript of your article on your website or institutional repository 6 months after the printed Journal is in the public domain, provided you give a hyperlink from the article to the Journal's website together with the following text: "The final version of record is available at www.biolcell.org".
You need not seek permission from Portland Press Ltd to apply the above rights.
Please note: you are NOT permitted to post the Portland Press Ltd version of your article online.
Full details will be provided on the Licence to Publish that you will be asked to sign after you submit your article.
| 4.5 Opt2Pay |  |
4.6 Proofs
Proofs will be sent to the corresponding author as a PDF together with instructions. Proofs must be returned within 48 hours. Excessive text alterations at proof stage are subject to approval by the Editor-in-Chief and a charge may be made. Figure reprocessing at the author's request will also be subject to charge.
4.7 offprintsOffprints must be ordered before the Journal is printed using the form supplied with the proofs.
5. Addresses for correspondence
Correspondence prior to submission of Reviews or contributions to the Scientiae Forum should be addressed to the appropriate Associate Editor directly (see below) or through the Editor-in-Chief.
- Biology of the Cell
- Faculté de Médecine
- Université de Rennes 1
- CS 34317,
- 35043 Rennes cedex
- France
- email biolcell@univ-rennes1.fr
- Faculté de Médecine
Reviews - Philippe FORT (philippe.fort@crbm.cnrs.fr) and Kevin ELICEIRI (eliceiri@wisc.edu)
My Favourite Sites - Christian SARDET (sardet@obs-vlfr.fr)
Models and Speculations - Thierry GALLI (thierry@tgalli.net)
Primer Reviews - Nathalie LAMARCHE-VANE (nathalie.lamarche@mcgill.ca) and Ivan DE CURTIS (decurtis.ivan@hsr.it)
History of Biology and the Cell - Mark TERASAKI (terasaki@neuron.uchc.edu)
5.3 Editorial correspondence
Correspondence about papers from the USA, Canada, Mexico and Central and South America should be sent to:
- Sharon Schendel
- Administrative Editor
- Biology of the Cell
- The Burnham Institute
- 10901 N Torrey Pines Road
- La Jolla
- CA 92037
- U.S.A.
- telephone: +1 858 795 5283
- fax: +1 858 795 5284
- email editorial@biolcellusa.org
- Administrative Editor
Correspondence about papers from all other countries, proofs and requests for permission to reproduce material should be addressed to:
- Lesley Ball
- Executive Editor
- Biology of the Cell
- Editorial Office
- Portland Press
- Third Floor, Eagle House
- 16 Procter Street
- London WC1V 6NX
- U.K.
- telephone: +44 20 7280 4110
- fax: +44 20 7280 4169
- email editorial@biolcell.org
- Executive Editor
All correspondence about offprints should be addressed to:
- Offprint Department
- Biology of the Cell
- Portland Press
- Third Floor, Eagle House
- 16 Procter Street
- London WC1V 6NX
- U.K.
- email editorial@biolcell.org
- Biology of the Cell
All correspondence about subscriptions to the journal, claims and back issues should be addressed to:
- Portland Customer Services
- P.O. Box 32
- Commerce Way
- Colchester CO2 8HP
- U.K.
- telephone: +44 1206 796351
- fax: +44 1206 799331
- email sales@portland-services.com
- P.O. Box 32
6. Standard abbreviations
List of standard abbreviations that may be used without definition in the title, running title and text:
| Abbreviation | Meaning |
| ADP (CDP, GDP, IDP, UDP, XDP, TDP) | adenosine 5′-diphosphate (and similarly for cytidine, guanosine, inosine, uridine, xanthosine, thymidine) |
| AIDS | acquired immunodeficiency syndrome |
| AMP etc. | adenosine 5′-phosphate etc. |
| ATP etc. | adenosine 5′-triphosphate etc. |
| ATPase etc. | adenosine 5′-triphosphatase etc. |
| Bicine | N,N-Bis-(2-hydroxyethyl)glycine |
| bp | base-pair(s) |
| BSA | bovine serum albumin |
| cAMP etc. | cyclic AMP (adenosine 3′:5′-cyclic monophosphate) etc. |
| DMSO | dimethyl sulphoxide |
| DNA, cDNA | deoxyribonuclic acid, complementary DNA |
| DNase | deoxyribonuclease |
| EDTA | ethylenediaminetetra-acetate |
| EGTA | [ethylenebis(oxonitrilo)]tetra-acetate |
| ELISA | enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay |
| FACS | fluorescence-activated cell sorting |
| FITC | fluorescein isothiocyanate |
| FPLC | fast protein liquid chromatography |
| G-protein | guanine-nucleotide-binding regulatory protein |
| Hepes | 4-(4-Hydroxyethyl)-I-piperazine-ethanesulphonic acid |
| HIV | human immunodeficiency virus |
| HPLC | high-performance liquid chromatography |
| IgG etc. | immunoglobulin G etc. |
| IR | infrared |
| kb | kilobases |
| Mes | 4-morpholine-ethanesulphonic acid |
| Mops | 4-morpholinepropanesulphonic acid |
| NAD+, | NADH oxidized and reduced nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide |
| NADP+, | NADPH oxidized and reduced nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate |
| nt | nucleotide(s) |
| PAGE | polyacrylamide-gel electrophoresis |
| PBS | phosphate-buffered saline |
| PCR | polymerase chain reaction |
| Pi, PPi | orthophosphate, pyrophosphate |
| Pipes | I,4-piperazinediethanesulphonic acid |
| PMSF | phenylmethanesulphonyl fluoride |
| RNA, mRNA, hnRNA, rRNA, tRNA | ribonucleic acid, messenger RNA, hetero-nuclear RNA, ribosomal RNA, transfer RNA |
| RNase | ribonuclease |
| SDS | sodium dodecyl sulphate |
| Tricine | N-[2-hydroxy-I,I-bis(hydroxymethyl)ethyl]glycine |
| Tris | 2-amino-2-hydroxymethylpropane-I,3-diol |
| UV | ultraviolet |
Nucleic acids - use one-letter symbol for ribonucleotides; 2′-deoxyribonucleotides are designated by the same symbol preceded by d, e.g. dG, 2′-deoxyribosylguanosine.
mRNA - names and abbreviations should be lower case and not italic (to differentiate from gene names and abbreviations).
Amino acids - the three-letter symbol is preferred to the one-letter symbol.
© Portland Press, 2008